Comprehensive Study of Connectors: Types, Examples, Rules and KCSE Revision Guide

 

COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF CONNECTORS

1. What Are Connectors?

Connectors (also called linking words or transitional words) are words or phrases used to connect ideas in speech and writing. They improve flow, coherence, and logical organisation of ideas.

Important: All conjunctions are connectors, but not all connectors are conjunctions.

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2. Types of Connectors

A. Addition Connectors

Examples: and, also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, besides, not only...but also

• She is intelligent and hardworking.
• He arrived late. Moreover, he forgot his homework.
• She not only sings but also dances.

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B. Contrast Connectors

Examples: but, however, although, though, nevertheless, on the other hand, whereas, despite, in spite of

• He is rich, but he is unhappy.
• She studied hard; however, she failed.
• Although he was tired, he continued working.
• Despite the rain, they played football.

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C. Cause / Reason Connectors

Examples: because, since, as, due to, owing to

• She was absent because she was sick.
• The match was postponed due to heavy rain.

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D. Result / Effect Connectors

Examples: so, therefore, thus, consequently, as a result

• It rained heavily, so we stayed indoors.
• He did not revise; therefore, he failed.
• She worked hard. As a result, she passed.

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E. Time Connectors

Examples: when, while, before, after, then, meanwhile, finally, later, eventually

• After the lesson ended, the students left.
• First, revise the notes. Then attempt the questions.

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F. Condition Connectors

Examples: if, unless, provided that, as long as, on condition that

• You will succeed if you work hard.
• I will help you provided that you are honest.

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G. Comparison Connectors

Examples: similarly, likewise, just as, in the same way

• Just as iron rusts, so does copper corrode.
• She loves literature; likewise, her sister enjoys reading novels.

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3. Connectors vs Conjunctions

Conjunctions	Connectors
Join clauses grammatically	Link ideas logically
and, but, because	however, therefore, moreover

Example:

Conjunction:
She was tired, but she continued working.

Connector (conjunctive adverb):
She was tired; however, she continued working.

Notice punctuation difference:

• Conjunction → comma before it
• Connector → semicolon before and comma after

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4. Punctuation Rules with Connectors

1. When using conjunctive adverbs

Use a semicolon before and a comma after.

He revised thoroughly; therefore, he passed.

2. When the connector begins the sentence

Use a comma after it.

However, she refused to apologise.

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5. Common KCSE Errors

✖ Although he was tired but he continued working.
✔ Although he was tired, he continued working.

✖ He failed because of he did not revise.
✔ He failed because he did not revise.
✔ He failed because of lack of revision.

✖ She is intelligent moreover she is humble.
✔ She is intelligent; moreover, she is humble.

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6. Revision Exercise (KCSE Standard)

1. She was sick; therefore, she stayed at home. (Identify the type)
2. Although he tried hard, he failed. (Identify the type)
3. First, revise your notes. Then answer the questions. (Identify the type)

Answers:

1. Result connector
2. Contrast connector
3. Time connector

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Prepared for KCSE English Grammar Mastery Series

Comprehensive Study of Conjunctions: Types, Rules, Examples and KCSE Revision Guide

 

COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF CONJUNCTIONS

1. Definition of a Conjunction

A conjunction is a word used to join words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Conjunctions help show relationships between ideas such as addition, contrast, cause, time, and condition.

Examples:

• John and Mary went home.
• She ran quickly but missed the bus.
• I will come if you invite me.

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2. Types of Conjunctions

There are three main types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunctions

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A. Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal grammatical importance.

The Seven Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

Conjunction	Function	Example
For	Reason	He left early, for he was tired.
And	Addition	She bought bread and milk.
Nor	Negative addition	She did not call, nor did she text.
But	Contrast	He is rich but unhappy.
Or	Choice	You can stay or leave.
Yet	Surprising contrast	She studied hard, yet she failed.
So	Result	It rained heavily, so we stayed inside.

Comma Rule

When joining two independent clauses, use a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

✔ She revised thoroughly, but she was still nervous.
✖ She revised thoroughly but she was still nervous.

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B. Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent clause to an independent clause. They show relationships such as time, cause, condition, contrast, purpose, and result.

1. Time

when, while, before, after, since, until, whenever

• I was reading when he arrived.
• She waited until the teacher came.

2. Cause / Reason

because, since, as

• She was absent because she was sick.

3. Condition

if, unless, provided that, as long as

• You will pass if you study hard.
• I will not go unless you accompany me.

4. Contrast

although, though, even though, whereas

• Although he is rich, he is unhappy.

5. Purpose

so that, in order that

• She whispered so that nobody could hear.

6. Result

so...that, such...that

• It was so cold that we stayed indoors.

Important Rule

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone.

✖ Because she was sick.
✔ Because she was sick, she stayed at home.
✔ She stayed at home because she was sick.

Comma Rule

Use a comma when the subordinate clause comes first.

✔ Because she was tired, she slept early.
✔ She slept early because she was tired.

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C. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join equal grammatical structures.

Pair	Example
either...or	Either you come or you stay.
neither...nor	Neither John nor Mary was present.
both...and	Both the teacher and the student agreed.
not only...but also	She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.
whether...or	I do not know whether he will come or not.

Parallel Structure Rule

The elements joined must be grammatically similar.

✔ She likes both singing and dancing.
✖ She likes both singing and to dance.

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Conjunctions vs Conjunctive Adverbs

Do not confuse conjunctions with conjunctive adverbs such as: however, therefore, moreover, consequently, nevertheless.

Example:
She was tired; however, she continued working.

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Final Revision Exercise

1. She studied hard because she wanted to pass. (Identify the type)
2. John and Mary attended the ceremony. (Identify the type)
3. Either you apologise or you leave. (Identify the type)

Answers:

1. Subordinating conjunction
2. Coordinating conjunction
3. Correlative conjunction

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Prepared for KCSE English Revision – Grammar Mastery Series

Uses of a Comma in English: Meanings, Examples & Practice Questions

 

Uses of a Comma (,) in English

A comma is a punctuation mark used to separate ideas, improve flow, and prevent confusion in sentences.

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1. Comma in Lists (Series)

Meaning: Used to separate three or more items in a list.

• She bought rice, beans, sugar, and milk.
• The hall was filled with teachers, students, parents, and guests.
• He enjoys reading, writing, singing, and teaching.

Practice

1. I saw lions elephants giraffes and zebras.
2. We need books rulers pens and chalk.

Answers

• I saw lions, elephants, giraffes, and zebras.
• We need books, rulers, pens, and chalk.

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2. Comma Before Coordinating Conjunctions

Meaning: Used to join two complete sentences connected by and, but, or, so, yet, for, nor.

• I wanted to go, but it started raining.
• She studied hard, so she passed.
• He called me, and I answered.

Practice

1. She was tired but she continued working.
2. I prepared well so I felt confident.

Answers

• She was tired, but she continued working.
• I prepared well, so I felt confident.

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3. Comma After Introductory Words or Phrases

Meaning: Used after words or phrases that begin a sentence.

• In the evening, we prayed.
• After the match, they celebrated.
• However, he refused.

Practice

1. After school we went home.
2. Suddenly the door opened.

Answers

• After school, we went home.
• Suddenly, the door opened.

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4. Commas for Non-essential Information

Meaning: Used to enclose extra information that can be removed without changing the main meaning.

• My father, who is a teacher, lives in Meru.
• Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, is busy.

Practice

1. My sister who lives in Nakuru is visiting.
2. The boy who won the prize is my cousin.

Answers

• My sister, who lives in Nakuru, is visiting.
• The boy, who won the prize, is my cousin.

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5. Commas Between Coordinate Adjectives

Meaning: Used between adjectives that equally describe a noun.

• She wore a short, red dress.
• It was a cold, rainy morning.

Practice

1. He bought a big blue bag.
2. She lives in a quiet peaceful village.

Answers

• He bought a big, blue bag.
• She lives in a quiet, peaceful village.

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6. Commas in Direct Speech

Meaning: Used to separate reporting words from quotations.

• The teacher said, “Read your books.”
• “I am ready,” she replied.

Practice

1. He said I am tired.
2. Come here she shouted.

Answers

• He said, “I am tired.”
• “Come here,” she shouted.

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7. Commas in Direct Address

Meaning: Used when speaking directly to someone.

• Mary, please help me.
• Please listen, children.
• I agree with you, John.

Practice

1. Teacher may I ask a question?
2. Come here Peter.

Answers

• Teacher, may I ask a question?
• Come here, Peter.

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8. Commas to Avoid Confusion

• Let’s eat, grandma.
• While walking, the phone rang.

Practice

1. Let’s eat children.
2. While walking the phone rang.

Answers

• Let’s eat, children.
• While walking, the phone rang.

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9. Commas in Dates, Addresses & Numbers

• January 10, 2025
• Eldoret, Kenya
• 1,000,000

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10. After Yes / No / Well

• Yes, I understand.
• No, I don’t agree.
• Well, let us begin.

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Final Exam Tip:
If removing a comma changes meaning or causes confusion, the comma is necessary.

Happy learning!

The Orange Turbulence — A Poetic Reflection on Orange Democratic Movement

THE ORANGE TURBULENCE 

On restless streets and crowded halls,
Old songs of unity crack in the air.
Orange banners flutter like tired wings,
Over drums of hope and whispers of betrayal.
Once a single voice thundered for the people
Now echoes argue with echoes.
Oaths feel lighter,
Opinions heavier,
Order dissolving into queries.

Divided hearts beat inside the Orange House.
Debates burn hotter than wild fires.
Some stretch hands toward power,
Dreaming of seats at the long table.
Others dig in their heels,
Demanding principle over proximity.
Drums of loyalty clash with cymbals of compromise—
Directions multiply,
Doubt walks freely through party corridors.

Meanwhile, the masses watch.
Mothers selling sukuma,
Motorbike riders at dusty junctions,
Mentors of tomorrow in crowded classrooms
All waiting for clarity.
Must the movement bend to survive?
Must resistance harden to remain pure?
In this moment of turbulence,
Memory wrestles with ambition,
And the party stands—burning,
Yet still breathing.

Comprehensive Guide to Phrases in English Grammar | Types, Examples & Exercises

 

Comprehensive Study of a Phrase (Grammar Notes + Examples)

A phrase is an important grammar unit tested in secondary school English. Understanding phrases helps learners improve sentence construction and perform better in functional grammar questions.

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✅ What Is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of related words that work together as one unit but do NOT contain a finite verb.

Because it has no subject–predicate relationship, a phrase cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

Examples

• in the house
• very happy
• a bunch of flowers

None of these express a complete thought on their own.

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✅ What Is a Finite Verb?

A finite verb is a verb that shows tense (past or present) and agrees with a subject.

Simply put: A finite verb changes according to time or subject and can help form a complete sentence.

Examples

• She runs every morning.
• They ran yesterday.
• He is happy.

Runs (present), ran (past), and is (agrees with he) are all finite verbs.

Classroom rule:
If a verb shows tense or agrees with a subject, it is finite.

This explains why a phrase cannot stand alone — it has no finite verb.

Example:
after school ❌ (phrase – no finite verb)
after school ended ✅ (clause – “ended” is finite)

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Difference Between a Phrase and a Clause

Phrase	Clause
No finite verb	Has a finite verb
Cannot stand alone	May stand alone
after school	after school ended

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Main Types of Phrases

There are five main types commonly examined:

• Noun Phrase
• Verb Phrase
• Prepositional Phrase
• Adjective Phrase
• Adverbial Phrase

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1. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase functions as a noun in a sentence. It usually contains a determiner, adjectives, and a head noun.

Examples (noun phrases in bold)

• I bought a new bag.
• The tall boy won the race.
• She loves those beautiful flowers.

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2. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase consists of the main verb plus any auxiliary (helping) verbs.

Examples

• She is reading a novel.
• They have been waiting.
• He will travel tomorrow.

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3. Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with its object.

Structure: Preposition + Object (+ modifiers)

Examples

• The book is on the table.
• He stood beside the road.
• She sat under the big tree.

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4. Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase describes a noun and may include intensifiers.

Examples

• She is very intelligent.
• It was extremely cold.
• That is a rather difficult question.

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5. Adverbial Phrase

An adverbial phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It shows time, place, manner, reason, or degree.

Examples

• He spoke very softly.
• She arrived quite late.
• They worked with great effort.

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Key Characteristics of a Phrase

• Has no finite verb
• Cannot form a complete sentence
• Functions as one unit
• Acts as noun, verb, adjective, or adverb
• Forms part of a clause

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Exam Tips

1. Check for a finite verb.
2. Identify the function of the group of words.
3. Ask:
   • Who/what? → noun phrase
   • How/when/where? → adverbial phrase
   • Which kind? → adjective phrase

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Practice Exercise

Identify the type of phrase in each sentence:

1. She walked in the rain.
2. He is very confident.
3. The small brown dog barked loudly.

Answers

1. Prepositional phrase
2. Adjective phrase
3. Noun phrase

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Summary

A phrase is a group of related words without a finite verb that functions as one unit in a sentence.

Main types include:

• Noun Phrase
• Verb Phrase
• Prepositional Phrase
• Adjective Phrase
• Adverbial Phrase

Mastering phrases helps learners write better sentences, analyse grammar accurately, and score higher in English examinations.

Comprehensive Study of Clauses

Comprehensive Study of Clauses 

1. What Is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a finite verb.

Examples:

• She sings.
• because he was late

Both examples contain a subject and a verb.

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2. Main Classification of Clauses

Clauses are divided into three major types:

• Independent (Main) Clauses
• Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses
• Coordinative (Coordinate) Clauses

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A. Independent (Main) Clause

An independent clause expresses a complete idea and can stand alone.

Examples:

• The students arrived early.
• She enjoys reading novels.
• The bell rang.

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B. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

A dependent clause has a subject and verb but cannot stand alone.

Example: because it was raining

There are three functional types:

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1. Noun Clause

A noun clause performs the work of a noun. It may act as subject, object, or complement.

a) As Subject

What he said surprised everyone.

b) As Object

I believe that she will pass.

c) As Complement

My hope is that peace will return.

Exam Tip: If the clause can be replaced by a noun, then it is a noun clause.

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2. Adjective Clause (Relative Clause)

An adjective clause describes a noun. It usually begins with who, whom, whose, which, or that.

• The boy who won the race is my cousin.
• This is the book that I lost.
• She met a teacher whose advice changed her life.

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3. Adverbial Clause

An adverbial clause shows time, reason, condition, purpose, or contrast.

Time:

When the bell rang, we left.

Reason:

I stayed home because I was sick.

Condition:

If you work hard, you will succeed.

Contrast:

Although it was raining, they continued playing.

Purpose:

She whispered so that nobody would hear.

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C. Coordinative (Coordinate) Clauses

These are independent clauses joined using coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, so, yet.

• She finished her homework, and she went to bed.
• He wanted to attend the meeting, but he was ill.
• You can stay here, or you may leave.

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Difference Between Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses

Coordinate Clauses	Subordinate Clauses
Equal in rank	One depends on the other
Joined by and, but, or	Introduced by because, when, who
Each stands alone	Cannot stand alone

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Final Summary

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.

• Independent clauses – express complete meaning.
• Dependent clauses – noun, adjective, and adverbial clauses.
• Coordinative clauses – main clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.

Relative Adverbs in English: Meaning, Rules, Examples and Common Errors

 

Relative Adverbs: A Detailed Study

In English grammar, relative adverbs are words used to introduce relative clauses while giving additional information about place, time, reason, or manner. Unlike relative pronouns, relative adverbs do not replace nouns. Instead, they modify verbs or whole clauses.

They link a main clause to a subordinate clause and refer back to an idea already mentioned.

The Main Relative Adverbs

• Where – refers to place
• When – refers to time
• Why – refers to reason
• How – refers to manner

Explanation and Examples

1. WHERE – Relative Adverb of Place

Where is used to refer to a place mentioned earlier in the sentence.

• This is the school where I studied.
• The house where he was born still stands.
• That is the village where my grandparents live.

Where can often be replaced with in which.

Example:
This is the school where I studied.
→ This is the school in which I studied.

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2. WHEN – Relative Adverb of Time

When refers to time or period.

• I remember the day when we first met.
• There was a time when people valued honesty.
• That was the moment when everything changed.

Example:
I remember the day when we met.
→ I remember the day on which we met.

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3. WHY – Relative Adverb of Reason

Why explains the reason for something and usually follows the noun reason.

• That is the reason why he resigned.
• I don’t understand the reason why she cried.

Often, why may be omitted:

That is the reason (why) he left.

Example:
That is the reason why he left.
→ That is the reason for which he left.

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4. HOW – Relative Adverb of Manner

How refers to the way or manner something is done. It normally follows the noun way.

• Show me the way how you solved the problem.
• I like the way how she speaks.

In formal grammar, how is often replaced by that or omitted:

• Show me the way you solved the problem.

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Relative Adverbs vs Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns replace nouns:

• who
• whom
• whose
• which
• that

Example:
The boy who won the race is my friend.

Relative Adverbs do NOT replace nouns:

• where – place
• when – time
• why – reason
• how – manner

Example:
This is the town where I grew up.

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Replacement with Preposition + Which

Relative adverbs can often be replaced using which with a preposition:

• This is the school where I studied.
  → This is the school in which I studied.
• I remember the day when we met.
  → I remember the day on which we met.
• That is the reason why he left.
  → That is the reason for which he left.

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Common Learner Errors

Error 1: Calling relative adverbs relative pronouns.

Correction: They are relative adverbs.

Error 2:

The reason why he left is because he was tired.

Correct:

• The reason why he left is that he was tired.
• He left because he was tired.

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Summary

• Where – place
• When – time
• Why – reason
• How – manner

Relative adverbs introduce relative clauses, refer back to earlier ideas, modify verbs or clauses, and do not replace nouns.

KCSE Exam Tip

If the word refers to place, time, reason, or manner, it is a relative adverb. If it replaces a noun, it is a relative pronoun.